Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

Descriptive text is not available for this image BASICS

A psychiatric disorder that may occur in people who have experienced or witnessed a traumatic event or who have been threatened with death, sexual violence, or serious injury.

DESCRIPTION

  • The disorder can appear at any age. In children >6 years of age, young adults, and adults; it presents with four trauma-associated symptom groups:
    • Intrusion symptoms like flashbacks, nightmares, distressing recollections
    • Avoidance of anything related to the traumatic event and/or numbing of general responsiveness
    • Increased arousal and reactivity
    • Negative alterations in mood and cognition
  • Symptoms of PTSD usually develop within 3 months after a trauma
  • Expression of symptoms can be delayed 6 months to years after trauma exposure
  • For diagnosis of PTSD, symptoms should be present for more than 1 month

EPIDEMIOLOGY

  • Probability of PTSD was assessed in about 29 types of traumatic experiences, divided into groups: sexual relationship violence, interpersonal violence, exposure to organized violence, participation in organized violence, and other life-threatening traumatic experiences.
  • Unexpected death of loved one, rape, other sexual assault were associated with the highest rate of PTSD.
  • 5–8% of children and adolescents exposed to trauma develop PTSD depending on trauma exposure and other risk factors.

Incidence

~7.7 million American adults aged ≥18 years (3.5% of this age group) are diagnosed with PTSD each year.

Prevalence

The lifetime prevalence of PTSD was 6–10%, with higher rates in combat veterans and victims of interpersonal violence.

ETIOLOGY AND PATHOPHYSIOLOGY

  • Biologic dimensions: hypersensitivity of catecholamine pathways and overactivity of the central opioid pathways is seen; the amygdala and hippocampus dysfunction, with possible atrophy from overexposure to catecholamines, serotonergic dysregulation, glutamatergic dysregulation, and increased thyroid activity
  • Learning theory: Life-threatening fear is classically conditioned by event exposure; any internal or external cue reminiscent of the event produces an intense “fight or flight” fear response.
  • Cognitive theories: These models suggest that severe trauma becomes represented in complex memory structures. The activation of these memories triggers intense thoughts and emotions that cause discomfort/dysfunction.
  • Psychodynamic theory: Traumatic memories overwhelm defense mechanisms. Repeated recall of the traumatic event with associated fear is an effort to understand the event in a less threatening way.

RISK FACTORS

  • Preexisting factors:
    • Female sex
    • Younger age
    • Psychiatric history
    • Low socioeconomic status
    • Ethnicity
  • Peritrauma factors:
    • Severity of the trauma
    • Peritrauma emotionality
    • Perception of threat to life
    • Perpetration of the trauma
  • Posttrauma environment:
    • Perceived injury severity
    • Medical complications
    • Perceived social support
    • Persistent dissociation from traumatic event

GENERAL PREVENTION

Trauma-focused cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) and prolonged exposure delivered within weeks of a potentially traumatic event for people showing signs of distress have the most evidence in the prevention of PTSD.

COMMONLY ASSOCIATED CONDITIONS

  • Major depressive disorder
  • Alcohol/substance abuse
  • Panic disorder/agoraphobia/social phobia/obsessive-compulsive disorder
  • Smoking (especially with assaultive trauma)
  • Major neurocognitive disorders, dementia, or amnesia
  • Traumatic brain injury/postconcussion syndrome

Pediatric Considerations
Oppositional defiant disorder and separation anxiety are common comorbid conditions.

There's more to see -- the rest of this topic is available only to subscribers.