Anemia, Sickle Cell
Basics
Description
- Hereditary, hemoglobinopathy marked by chronic hemolytic anemia, acute episodes of painful crises, and increased susceptibility to infections
- The heterozygous condition (Hb AS), sickle cell trait, is usually asymptomatic without anemia.
- Synonym(s): sickle cell disease (SCD); Hb SS disease
Pediatric Considerations
- Sequestration crises and hand–foot syndrome are seen typically in infants/young children.
- Strokes occur mainly in childhood.
- Adolescence/young adulthood:
- Frequency of complications and organ/tissue damage increases with age.
- Psychological complications: body image, interrupted schooling, restriction of activities; stigma of disease; low self-esteem
Pregnancy Considerations
- Complicated, especially during 3rd trimester and delivery
- Fetal mortality rate is 35–40%. Fetal survival is >90% if the fetus reaches the 3rd trimester.
- High prevalence of small for gestational age (SGA) babies
- 6 times higher maternal mortality compared to control
- Increased risk of thrombosis, preterm delivery, pain, toxemia, infection, pulmonary infarction, and phlebitis
- Partial exchange transfusion in 3rd trimester may reduce maternal morbidity and fetal mortality but is controversial.
- Chronic transfusions have been effective in diminishing pain episodes in pregnant women. However, this method should be used with caution due to risk of alloimmunization.
Epidemiology
Prevalence
- ~100,000 Americans have sickle cell anemia (SCA), and ~3 million people in the United States have sickle cell trait.
- The condition affects mainly people of African descent. Hispanic, Middle Eastern, Asian Indian, and Mediterranean ancestry may also be affected.
Etiology and Pathophysiology
- Hemoglobin S (HbS) results from the substitution of the amino acid valine for glutamic acid at the sixth position of the β-globin chain. Hydrophobic valine residues interact with other hydrophobic residues, contributing to HbS polymerization.
- HbS polymerization occurs in the RBC with increased concentrations of HbS and in deoxygenated states, resulting in RBC sickling.
- Sickle RBCs exhibit increased adhesion, are inflexible, and have decreased ability to maneuver through small vessels leading to increased blood viscosity, stasis, and vaso-occlusion of small arterioles and capillaries, resulting in ischemia.
- Chronic anemia; crises:
- Vaso-occlusive crisis: tissue ischemia and necrosis; progressive organ failure/tissue damage from repeated episodes
- Hand–foot syndrome: Vessel occlusion/ischemia affects small blood vessels in hands or feet.
- Aplastic crisis: suppression of RBC production by severe infection (e.g., parvovirus and other viral infections)
- Suppression of RBC production
- Hyperhemolytic crisis: accelerated hemolysis with reticulocytosis; increased RBC fragility/shortened lifespan
- Sequestration crisis: splenic sequestration of blood (only in young children as spleen is later lost to autoinfarction)
- Susceptibility to infection: impaired/absent splenic function leading to decreased ability to clear infection; defect in alternate pathway of complement activation
- Increased red cell destruction causes decreased hemoglobin levels and results in anemia and fatigue.
Genetics
- Autosomal recessive; homozygous condition, Hb SS; heterozygous condition, Hb AS
- The heterozygous condition can also be combined with other hemoglobinopathies: Sickle cell hemoglobin C (HbSC) disease and Sβ + thalassemia are clinically similar to the heterozygous condition, whereas Sβ thalassemia is clinically similar to the homozygous condition.
Risk Factors
- Vaso-occlusive crisis (“painful crisis”): hypoxia, dehydration, high altitudes, stress, fever, infection, acidosis, cold, anesthesia, strenuous physical exercise, alcohol, smoking
- Aplastic crisis (suppression of RBC production): severe infections, human parvovirus B19 infection, folic acid deficiency
- Hyperhemolytic crisis (accelerated hemolysis with reticulocytosis): acute bacterial infections, exposure to oxidant
General Prevention
- Prevention of crises
- Avoid hypoxia, dehydration, cold, infection, fever, acidosis, and anesthesia.
- Prompt management of fever, infections, pain
- Avoid alcohol and smoking. Avoid high-altitude areas.
- Minimizing trauma: Aseptic technique is imperative.
There's more to see -- the rest of this topic is available only to subscribers.
Citation
Domino, Frank J., et al., editors. "Anemia, Sickle Cell." 5-Minute Clinical Consult, 27th ed., Wolters Kluwer, 2020. Medicine Central, im.unboundmedicine.com/medicine/view/5-Minute-Clinical-Consult/116027/all/Anemia__Sickle_Cell.
Anemia, Sickle Cell. In: Domino FJF, Baldor RAR, Golding JJ, et al, eds. 5-Minute Clinical Consult. Wolters Kluwer; 2020. https://im.unboundmedicine.com/medicine/view/5-Minute-Clinical-Consult/116027/all/Anemia__Sickle_Cell. Accessed December 4, 2023.
Anemia, Sickle Cell. (2020). In Domino, F. J., Baldor, R. A., Golding, J., & Stephens, M. B. (Eds.), 5-Minute Clinical Consult (27th ed.). Wolters Kluwer. https://im.unboundmedicine.com/medicine/view/5-Minute-Clinical-Consult/116027/all/Anemia__Sickle_Cell
Anemia, Sickle Cell [Internet]. In: Domino FJF, Baldor RAR, Golding JJ, Stephens MBM, editors. 5-Minute Clinical Consult. Wolters Kluwer; 2020. [cited 2023 December 04]. Available from: https://im.unboundmedicine.com/medicine/view/5-Minute-Clinical-Consult/116027/all/Anemia__Sickle_Cell.
* Article titles in AMA citation format should be in sentence-case
TY - ELEC
T1 - Anemia, Sickle Cell
ID - 116027
ED - Domino,Frank J,
ED - Baldor,Robert A,
ED - Golding,Jeremy,
ED - Stephens,Mark B,
BT - 5-Minute Clinical Consult, Updating
UR - https://im.unboundmedicine.com/medicine/view/5-Minute-Clinical-Consult/116027/all/Anemia__Sickle_Cell
PB - Wolters Kluwer
ET - 27
DB - Medicine Central
DP - Unbound Medicine
ER -